A kindergarten classroom in Afghanistan.Education can be seen as a product or a process and considered in a broad sense or a technical sense. According to philosopher of education George F. Kneller,In its broad sense, education refers to any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual...In its technical sense education is the process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities, and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage--its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills--from one generation to another.[1]In popular discourse, use of the term education usually connotes the technical sense and is generally limited to the context of teachers instructing students. Teachers may draw on many subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Teachers in specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or zoology may teach only a certain subject, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is also instruction in fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition to such formal and technical education there is an array of education, in the technical and broad sense, possible at the informal level, e.g., at museums and libraries, with the Internet, and in life experience.The right to education has been described as a basic human right: since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.
Education
Primary education
Primary school in open air. Teacher (priest) with class from the outskirts of Bucharest, around 1842.
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first few years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or seven years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.[2] Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.
Higher education
The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.
Teaching
Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to students. The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. Studies from the US suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.
Educational Theory
Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists and sophists and includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and andragogy. In the 20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to teaching, assessment and education law, most of which are informed by various academic fields, which can be seen in the below sections.
History
A depiction of the University of Bologna, ItalyThe history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994 "began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on.[citation needed] The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge.[citation needed] In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially.[citation needed] When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed.[citation needed] Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC
"Why is Harvard University so famous in the world?"
Harvard is famous because it is one of the very best Universities on the planet. It is the oldest college in the country and has educated a staggering number of famous and successful people from all over the world. It is also one of the elite research colleges on the planet, and it's global fame derives from that.
The division of students at Universities all over the world
School – the place where humans widen their knowledge. Student – an inseparable part of the school. Without him this institution would be nothing more than only four walls built to attract somebody’s attention. Certainly, everyone of us is aware of the fact there are many kinds of schools. I can mention primary schools, secondary schools, colleges and universities. As the old saying goes: “There are as many different students, as there are schools”. You can meet grinds there, whose inherent identification signs are: a backpack full of books and hands tired from heaps of papers. During the breaks you can also spot a different group of students. Those students come to school mostly to make the next acquaintance with the blond beauty. There are also students who were forced to go school. They did not have the chance to decide of their future life.
When student graduates from high school, he faces difficulties, the next problematic topics that he will be encounter to the end of his earthly life. One of those, bothering probably every young man, is the question: “ What shall I do next with my life? Will I like my neighbor from behind a fence start a new job at a nearby Mc. Donald, or maybe, like my neighbor on my left, go to college?” Those questions remain very often without any reply. They are too tough nut to crack in the eyes of terrified eighteen years old person. At this difficult moment in their lives, the immediate help approaches: parents, dear, kind-hearted parents. As always they are on the spot, as always ready to reach out and give a helpful hand. It is up to them what will happen to their beloved daughter, or adored “Brian” in the future. During many tumultuous nights they will be trying to convince their offspring not to “waste the chance of a lifetime” and go to a famous university or a nearby college.
The first group I would like to write about is the group of victims, the gray “creatures” worthy repenting in the eyes of many of us. For them the suit is an insignificant thing. Getting up every day they put on the same raggedy jeans, the same blue shirt, which they got on their sixteenth birthday from their grandmother. There are students in above group, who still rely on their moms to choose the clothing they wear. Those students are still beloved “bears” but in the bodies of grown-up men. Asking about the most sheltered reverie they give no answer. Those students are too afraid. They are used to the painful truth that they do not have any rights to dream. But on the other hand, like every one of us, they do have their hidden desires. They want to tear out from the claws of “beloved” parents as soon as possible. They want to, as every grown –up human being, start living according to their own inner principles. As a rule those students attend lectures regularly. They do not have courage to object to their parents’ commands. Ditching classes in the eyes of a frightened teenager would be like stealing the precious jewel: too dangerous to undertake this challenge. Asked about the most frequent topic of their conversations, they are simply silent. Why? They do not have anybody to talk to. Those students run away from everyone, run away from reality. It happens that this group of “solitary students” meets in the “noiseless” places of the school to spend hours reflecting upon their monotonous existence. The selection of next classes is unimportant for them. They do not have a right to decide. Living in a continuous conflict with their own ego, they listen to subsequent orders of their “beloved” parents. They listen to them also when it comes to choosing all their classes for the following semester. The most admire person all over the world is president Lincoln or general Colin Powell. Those people devoted all their lives to fighting for personal freedom. Those people are unparalleled examples in the eyes of students belong to the group of victims. The above heroes had courage not only to fight for their own rights but also for those of millions of other people. They were not afraid of loudly expressing their own opinions in spite of the fact that they themselves were criticized and disapproved of very frequently. People like president Lincoln or general Powell are almost like gods. They become the example to imitate by young and indecisive students. In the course of time those students lose what is the most significant component of learning: the pleasure of gaining the knowledge and the desire for widens their horizons. Instead of this, they become gloomy thinkers, who you can meet in the forgotten corners of every corridor. They cannot enter meaningful relationships, because they do not fell as part of the institution, their own school. Students creating this “phenomenon” finish their education with poor scores and without any smiles on their faces. Why? Because they did not have the opportunity to decide about their lives. They did not have any chance to be a helmsman of their own destiny.
The next group of students, as far as their purpose for attending schools, is more optimistic. The students that belong to this group are “good students” who had the opportunity to decide about their education. You can meet this kind of students dressed in gray gym suits, jeans or elegant suits. There are also “good students” whose inseparable attaché of clothes are cowboy boots, a hat and a bandana on their necks like John Wayne. Those students never miss classes. It would be a sin for them. Being absent is equal to a sleepless night because of remorse. Missing even a single hour destroys an eternal opinion of being the best student at school. The desire for gaining new knowledge is stronger than friends’ persuasions of some day excursion on the lake on Monday morning. Topics of chats of “perfect students” are physical events, mathematical phenomena, and scientific figures. There is one unwritten rule: “ Let’s talk about everything as long as it is connected with science”. The conversation does not stick together when it is about the new blond beauty with the shapeliest legs at school. When the object is a new discovery in biophysics or the influence of moon’s phases on the moods of ants, the conversation becomes a three-hour debate. Those students have known what they wanted to achieve during their lives since their birthday. They attend school because they want to. Being the inseparable part of the school is their own free will. Thank God, most of the students are members of this kind of the group. The destiny of their homeland will be in their hands. Those students broaden the knowledge not because they have to, but because it is a positive stimulus. Getting up every morning, no matter if it is nine or six o’clock, they enter school’s thresholds. Those students are aware of how much they are able to achieve by their own strength. As students, they not only do what is their obligation, but also much more. They conduct campaigns organize by their schools. Looking at them we can see people who follow an aim, desperate, thirsty for power, which in their eyes is the knowledge. To them studying for three tests during one day, or read “The Animal Farm” written by Orwell, is not a big problem. Those students “devour books” like the vitamin c, with a smile on the face. Every next mathematical principle, every next physical rule opens new perspectives concerning the surrounding world. Those “good students” leave school with the thought that they have learned something new. Asking about Matejko or Byron, their lips are not sealed, because they know exactly who the question is about. Those students are the best example that school does not have to be the place that frightens away. But like a magnet draws them closer. Those students will attain their objectives. Why? Because they had the opportunity to derive pleasure from the science, they had the opportunity to attend school because of their own will. Asking about the authority they mention: Einstein, Plato or Newton. Their figures are visible on walls of their rooms and over their beds. But also the same figures exist in subconscious minds of every “good student”.
The last group I would like to describe I named “Generation X”. Asking what they want to do with their future live they simply answer that they do not know. The only motive for the drab existence is a next party or new-opened discotheque downtown. Their purpose is being the famous playboy at school. Their dream is being a movie star at the sight of whom teenagers’ hearts beat to the rhythm of cha-cha. They spend every free moment in renowned shops. They waste hundreds of dollars buying “cool” jeans and suits designed by Calvin Klein or Versache’s team. The craving for being best dressed becomes their obsession. The most important rule is “the tighter the better”. Countless hours spent in the gym to build bigger muscles cannot be in vein. Every bicep has to be visible. That is the point. Students that belong to this group rarely attend lectures. Their desks are usually empty. They wait for their “masters” for nothing. They prefer nice chats with the sexy blonde rather than a boring psychology class. Most of these students do not have the slightest idea of what classes exist on their schedules. When questioned about other courses they are going to take next semester, they simply answer: “ Those which are the easiest to pass”. If a topic of one of English projects is a question about who is their authority, these students name John Travolta from the movie “ The Saturday Night Fever”. It is not surprised. This man and similar to him fulfill all of students’ expectations. He is not only a good-looking macho man but also a brilliant dancer with at least four girls around him. Students from the “Generation X” do not treat school like a kind of institution of higher learning. For them school is like their former playground where they could meet familiar faces. They do not care about good grades. They pay more attention to spending time in some new and interesting way. They pass hours in the cafeteria playing the fifteenth game of poker. As far as they are concerned there is no advantage to working on the experiment to show the results of the particles’ gravitation. More interesting is the question how they can get B or D from the English course.
The division of students as far as their purpose for attending school could be incomprehensible to many people. Being one of the undergraduates I hardly believe that this partition exists at every American university, or at the universities in other countries. The motives for attending school depend on us, on our interests, and on our personality. Human beings are creatures thirsty to discover what is unknown and mysterious. Every one of us is aware of the fact that there are as many motives for attending school as many various students. They are knowledge lovers, discoverers, but also simple human beings, who would not know what to do with their life if there was no place like school.
At this moment I would like to use a personification. Students are like a river. Some of her sectors are deep and wide. Those are “the good students”, who attend school because they want to. Those learners could set the pattern for others. But the same river has also tributaries. Those are narrower, weaker, and less visible. I compared those parts of the river to “the victims’ group”. They did not have the choice; they succumbed to the laws of nature, the law of survival. You can also see places where the same river chances her course. The good example of this phenomenon in our world is “the cool group, the group of Generation X”. They do not care what will happen next. They just want to live with the conscious hope that something will happen. Whether they will turn right or left does not matter to them.
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, roughly meaning "community of teachers and scholars".
History
Early history
Representation of a university class in the 1350s
The original Latin word "universitas", first used in a time of renewed interest in Classical Greek and Roman tradition, tried to reflect this feature of the Academy of Plato (established 385 BC). The original Latin word referred to places of learning in Europe, where the use of Latin was prevalent. The Latin term "academia" is sometimes extended to a number of educational institutions of non-Western antiquity, including China, India and Persia:
* Academies such as Taixue and Guozijian, succeeded by the medieval Academies of Classical Learning
* Taxila[2] in Gandhara, Ancient India, now Pakistan and the Buddhist Nalanda University[3] and Vikramaśīla University in Bihar, India (5th century AD).
* The Sassanid Academy of Gundishapur was founded in the 5th AD century in Persia/Iran.
The University of Constantinople, founded as an institution of higher learning in 425 and reorganized as a corporation of students in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III, is considered by some to be the earliest institution of higher learning with some of the characteristics we associate today with a university (research and teaching, auto-administration, academic independence, et cetera). If a university is defined as "an institution of higher learning" then it is preceded by several others, including the Academy that it was founded to compete with and eventually replaced. If the original meaning of the word is considered "a corporation of students" then this could be the first example of such an institution.[4]
If the definition of a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate) like in the modern sense of the word, then the medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) founded in the 9th century would be the first examples of such an institution.[5][6] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri.[7] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were founded in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[6][8] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah university which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah),[6] and had individual faculties[9] for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy, and logic in Islamic philosophy.
History
Early history
Representation of a university class in the 1350s
The original Latin word "universitas", first used in a time of renewed interest in Classical Greek and Roman tradition, tried to reflect this feature of the Academy of Plato (established 385 BC). The original Latin word referred to places of learning in Europe, where the use of Latin was prevalent. The Latin term "academia" is sometimes extended to a number of educational institutions of non-Western antiquity, including China, India and Persia:
* Academies such as Taixue and Guozijian, succeeded by the medieval Academies of Classical Learning
* Taxila[2] in Gandhara, Ancient India, now Pakistan and the Buddhist Nalanda University[3] and Vikramaśīla University in Bihar, India (5th century AD).
* The Sassanid Academy of Gundishapur was founded in the 5th AD century in Persia/Iran.
The University of Constantinople, founded as an institution of higher learning in 425 and reorganized as a corporation of students in 849 by the regent Bardas of emperor Michael III, is considered by some to be the earliest institution of higher learning with some of the characteristics we associate today with a university (research and teaching, auto-administration, academic independence, et cetera). If a university is defined as "an institution of higher learning" then it is preceded by several others, including the Academy that it was founded to compete with and eventually replaced. If the original meaning of the word is considered "a corporation of students" then this could be the first example of such an institution.[4]
If the definition of a university is assumed to mean an institution of higher education and research which issues academic degrees at all levels (bachelor, master and doctorate) like in the modern sense of the word, then the medieval Madrasahs known as Jami'ah ("university" in Arabic) founded in the 9th century would be the first examples of such an institution.[5][6] The University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is thus recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the oldest degree-granting university in the world with its founding in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri.[7] Also in the 9th century, Bimaristan medical schools were founded in the medieval Islamic world, where medical degrees and diplomas were issued to students of Islamic medicine who were qualified to be a practicing Doctor of Medicine.[6][8] Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975, was a Jami'ah university which offered a variety of post-graduate degrees (Ijazah),[6] and had individual faculties[9] for a theological seminary, Islamic law and jurisprudence, Arabic grammar, Islamic astronomy, early Islamic philosophy, and logic in Islamic philosophy.
Medieval universities
The University of Salamanca in Spain, founded 1218
The first higher education institution in medieval Europe was the University of Constantinople, followed by the University of Salerno (9th century), the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School in the Bulgarian Empire (9th century). The first degree-granting universities in Europe were the University of Bologna (1088), the University of Paris (c. 1150, later associated with the Sorbonne), the University of Oxford (1167), the University of Cambridge (1209), the University of Salamanca (1218), the University of Montpellier (1220), the University of Padua (1222), the University of Naples Federico II (1224), and the University of Toulouse (1229).[10][11] Some scholars such as George Makdisi,[5] John Makdisi[12] and Hugh Goddard[13] argue that these medieval universities were influenced in many ways by the medieval Madrasah institutions in Islamic Spain, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades).
The earliest universities in Western Europe were developed under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali (NB: The development of cathedral schools into Universities actually appears to be quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception - see Leff, Paris and Oxford Universities), later they were also founded by Kings (Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Krakow) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries.
In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. (See Degrees of the University of Oxford for the history of how the trivium and quadrivium developed in relation to degrees, especially in anglophone universities).
Outside of Europe, there were many notable institutions of learning throughout history. In China, there was the famous Hanlin Academy, established during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD), and was once headed by the Chancellor Shen Kuo (1031-1095), a famous Chinese scientist, inventor, mathematician, and statesman.
Modern universities
The tower of the University of Coimbra, the oldest Portuguese university
The end of the medieval period marked the beginning of the transformation of universities that would eventually result in the modern research university. Many external influences, such as eras of humanism, Enlightenment, Reformation, and revolution, shaped research universities during their development.
By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals, and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher’s liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities.[citation needed] The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.
Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and become increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain the move from industrial revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe. In a general sense, the basic structure and aims of universities have remained constant over the years
Organization
The University of Sydney is Australia's oldest university.
Although each institution is differently organized, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have a broader independence from state policies.
Despite the variable policies, or cultural and economic standards available in different geographical locations create a tremendous disparity between universities around the world and even inside a country, the universities are usually among the foremost research and advanced training providers in every society. Most universities not only offer courses in subjects ranging from the natural sciences, engineering, architecture or medicine, to sports sciences, social sciences, law or humanities, they also offer many amenities to their student population including a variety of places to eat, banks, bookshops, print shops, job centres, and bars. In addition, universities have a range of facilities like libraries, sports centers, students' unions, computer labs, and research laboratories. In a number of countries, major classic universities usually have their own botanical gardens, astronomical observatories, business incubators and university hospitals.
Universities around the world
Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas, US
The funding and organisation of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.[1
Classification
Brooks Hall, home of the Terry College of Business at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, US
Across the world there are differing standards for the legal definition of the term "university" and formal accreditation of institutions. There is no nationally standardized definition of the term in the United States, although the term is primarily used to designate research institutions and is often reserved for doctorate-granting institutions[15], but some US states, such as Massachusetts, will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees.[16]
In the United Kingdom, an institution can only use the term if it has been granted by the Privy Council, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992.[17]
In many regions of the world, a university is any institution of higher education and research which grants autonomously a range of academic degrees in several fields, from bachelor's degrees to doctorate degrees, including masters' degrees, as well as honoris causa degrees and agrégation/habilitation diplomas in the places where these are used.[citation needed] Independently performed research conducted by universities includes both fundamental research and applied research.
Colloquial usage
Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "when I was at university…" (in the United States and Ireland, college is used instead: "when I was in college..."). See the college article for further discussion. In Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the German-speaking countries "university" is often contracted to "uni". In New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity", which was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.
Religious / Political Control of Universities
In some countries, in some political systems, universities are controlled by political or religious authorities who forbid certain fields of study or impose certain other fields. Sometimes national or racial limitations exist in the students that can be admitted, the faculty and staff that can be employed, and the research that can be conducted.
Nazi universities
Books from university libraries, written by anti-Nazi or Jewish authors, were burned in places (e.g., in Berlin) in 1933, and the curricula were subsequently modified. Jewish professors and students were expelled according to the racial policy of Nazi Germany, see also the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service. Martin Heidegger became the rector of Freiburg University, where he delivered a number of Nazi speeches. On August 21, 1933 Heidegger established the Führer-principle at the university, later he was appointed Führer of Freiburg University. University of Poznań was closed by the Nazi Occupation in 1939. 1941–1944 a German university worked there. University of Strasbourg was transferred to Clermont-Ferrand and Reichsuniversität Straßburg existed 1941–1944 [1].
Nazi universities ended in 1945.
Soviet universities
Moscow State University at Sparrow Hills is the largest educational building in the world.
Soviet type universities existed in the Soviet Union and in other countries of the Eastern Bloc. Medical, technical, economical, technological and arts faculties were frequently separated from universities (compare the List of institutions of higher learning in Russia). Soviet ideology was taught divided into three disciplines: Scientific Communism, Marxism-Leninism and Communist Political Economy, and was introduced as part of many courses, eg. teaching Karl Marx' or Vladimir Lenin's views on energy or history. Sciences were supported, but the humanities curbed. In 1922, the Bolshevik government expelled some 160 prominent intellectuals on the Philosophers' ship, later some professors and students were killed or worked in Gulag camps. Communist economy was preferred, liberal ideas criticized or ignored. Genetics was degradated to Lysenkoism from the middle of the 1930s to the middle of the 1960s. Communist parties controlled or influenced universities. The leading university was the Moscow State University. After Joseph Stalin's death, universities in some Communist countries obtained more freedom. The Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University provided higher education as well as a training ground for young communists from developing countries.
Old College at Aberystwyth University. Established in 1872, it is one of the oldest institutes of higher education In Wales.
Old College, a building of the University of Edinburgh, one of the oldest universities in the United Kingdom
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View of the San Fernando Valley from the dorms at the American Jewish University, Los Angeles, California, US
Education
Education can be seen as a product or a process and considered in a broad sense or a technical sense. According to philosopher of education George F. Kneller,
In its broad sense, education refers to any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual...In its technical sense education is the process by which society, through schools, colleges, universities, and other institutions, deliberately transmits its cultural heritage--its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills--from one generation to another.[1]
In popular discourse, use of the term education usually connotes the technical sense and is generally limited to the context of teachers instructing students. Teachers may draw on many subjects, including reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Teachers in specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or zoology may teach only a certain subject, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is also instruction in fields for those who want specific vocational skills, such as those required to be a pilot. In addition to such formal and technical education there is an array of education, in the technical and broad sense, possible at the informal level, e.g., at museums and libraries, with the Internet, and in life experience.
The right to education has been described as a basic human right: since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.
Systems of formal education
Education is a broad concept, referring to all the experiences in which students can learn something:
* Instruction refers to the intentional facilitating of learning toward identified goals, delivered either by an instructor or other forms.
* Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart learning to the student.
* Training refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion.
Primary education
Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first few years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or seven years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 70% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising.[2] Under the Education for All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior schools.
Secondary education
In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education consists of the second years of formal education that occur during adolescence.[citation needed] It is characterised by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, "post-secondary", or "higher" education (e.g., university, vocational school) for adults.[citation needed] Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States and Canada primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1-13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.
The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (i.e. emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created and the curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved to be beneficial for both the employer and the employee, because this improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a relatively higher wage then employees with just primary educational attainment.
Educational Systems varies in different countries. Some countries have have 8 years in primary school while others have only six years. Depending the curriculum created by the different education systems in each country. In the Philippines we have only 6 years in primary schools while in china primary school has five to seven years before going to secondary schools. Educational system depend on how they will be impart on the quality of teaching levels being teach to the children.
Higher education
Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.
Higher education includes teaching, research and social services activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Higher education in that country generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.[citation needed]
Adult education
Adult education has become common in many countries. It takes on many forms, ranging from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.
Alternative education
Alternative education, also known as non-traditional education or educational alternative, is a broad term that may be used to refer to all forms of education outside of traditional education (for all age groups and levels of education). This may include not only forms of education designed for students with special needs (ranging from teenage pregnancy to intellectual disability), but also forms of education designed for a general audience and employing alternative educational philosophies and methods.
Alternatives of the latter type are often the result of education reform and are rooted in various philosophies that are commonly fundamentally different from those of traditional compulsory education. While some have strong political, scholarly, or philosophical orientations, others are more informal associations of teachers and students dissatisfied with certain aspects of traditional education[citation needed]. These alternatives, which include charter schools, alternative schools, independent schools, and home-based learning vary widely, but often emphasize the value of small class size, close relationships between students and teachers, and a sense of community[
Indigenous education
Increasingly, the inclusion of indigenous models of education (methods and content) as an alternative within the scope of formal and non-formal education systems, has come to represent a significant factor contributing to the success of those members of indigenous communities who choose to access these systems, both as students/learners and as teachers/instructors.
As an educational method, the inclusion of indigenous ways of knowing, learning, instructing, teaching and training, has been viewed by many critical and postmodern scholars as important for ensuring that students/learners and teachers/instructors (whether indigenous or non-indigenous) are able to benefit from education in a culturally sensitive manner that draws upon, utilizes, promotes and enhances awareness of indigenous traditions.[3]
For indigenous students or learners, and teachers or instructors, the inclusion of these methods often enhances educational effectiveness, success and learning outcomes by providing education that adheres to their own inherent perspectives, experiences and worldview. For non-indigenous students and teachers, education using such methods often has the effect of raising awareness of the individual traditions and collective experience of surrounding indigenous communities and peoples, thereby promoting greater respect for and appreciation of the cultural realities of these communities and peoples.
In terms of educational content, the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, traditions, perspectives, worldviews and conceptions within curricula, instructional materials and textbooks and coursebooks have largely the same effects as the inclusion of indigenous methods in education. Indigenous students and teachers benefit from enhanced academic effectiveness, success and learning outcomes, while non-indigenous students/learners and teachers often have greater awareness, respect, and appreciation for indigenous communities and peoples in consequence of the content that is shared during the course of educational pursuits.[4]
A prime example of how indigenous methods and content can be used to promote the above outcomes is demonstrated within higher education in Canada. Due to certain jurisdictions' focus on enhancing academic success for Aboriginal learners and promoting the values of multiculturalism in society, the inclusion of indigenous methods and content in education is often seen as an important obligation and duty of both governmental and educational authorities.[5]
Process Curriculum
An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university, or via some other such method. Functionally, disciplines are usually defined and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and by the learned societies to which their practitioners belong.[citation needed] Professors say schooling is 80% psychological, 20% physical effort.[citation needed]
Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.[6]
Learning modalities
There has been work on learning styles over the last two decades. Dunn and Dunn[7] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli[8] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner[9] identified individual talents or aptitudes in his Multiple Intelligences theories. Based on the works of Jung, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter[10] focused on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator[11] follows a similar but more simplified approach.
It is currently fashionable to divide education into different learning "modes". The learning modalities[12] are probably the most common:[13]
* Kinesthetic: learning based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.
* Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
* Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
It is claimed that, depending on their preferred learning modality, different teaching techniques have different levels of effectiveness.[14] A consequence of this theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them.[15]
Teaching
Teachers need to understand a subject enough to convey its essence to students. The goal is to establish a sound knowledge base on which students will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. The passing of knowledge from generation to generation allows students to grow into useful members of society. Good teachers can translate information, good judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. Studies from the US suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible. [16
Technology
Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. Computers and mobile phones are used in developed countries both to complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as online education (a type of distance education). This gives students the opportunity to choose what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology offers powerful learning tools that demand new skills and understandings of students, including Multimedia, and provides new ways to engage students, such as Virtual learning environments. Technology is being used more not only in administrative duties in education but also in the instruction of students. The use of technologies such as PowerPoint and interactive whiteboard is capturing the attention of students in the classroom. Technology is also being used in the assessment of students. One example is the Audience Response System (ARS), which allows immediate feedback tests and classroom discussions.
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are a “diverse set of tools and resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.”[17] These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and telephony. There is increasing interest in how computers and the Internet can improve education at all levels, in both formal and non-formal settings.[18] Older ICT technologies, such as radio and television, have for over forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and developing countries.[19]
The use of computers and the Internet is in its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access. Usually, various technologies are used in combination rather than as the sole delivery mechanism. For example, the Kothmale Community Radio Internet uses both radio broadcasts and computer and Internet technologies to facilitate the sharing of information and provide educational opportunities in a rural community in Sri Lanka.[20] The Open University of the United Kingdom (UKOU), established in 1969 as the first educational institution in the world wholly dedicated to open and distance learning, still relies heavily on print-based materials supplemented by radio, television and, in recent years, online programming.[21] Similarly, the Indira Gandhi National Open University in India combines the use of print, recorded audio and video, broadcast radio and television, and audio conferencing technologies.[22]
The term "computer-assisted learning" (CAL) has been increasingly used to describe the use of technology in teaching.
Educational Theory
Education theory is the theory of the purpose, application and interpretation of education and learning. Its history begins with classical Greek educationalists and sophists and includes, since the 18th century, pedagogy and andragogy. In the 20th century, "theory" has become an umbrella term for a variety of scholarly approaches to teaching, assessment and education law, most of which are informed by various academic fields, which can be seen in the below sections.
Economics
It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth. [23] Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imiation. Therefore, a countries ability to learn form the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital." [24] Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions[25] and the role of cognitive skills.[26]
At the individual level, there is a large literature, generally related back to the work of Jacob Mincer,[27] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital of the individual. This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling.[28]
Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Ginits famously argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production on the other.[29]
History
The history of education according to Dieter Lenzen, president of the Freie Universität Berlin 1994 "began either millions of years ago or at the end of 1770". Education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on.[citation needed] The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge.[citation needed] In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially.[citation needed] When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed.[citation needed] Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.[citation needed]
Philosophy
Philosophy of education is the philosophical study of the purpose, process, nature and ideals of education. Philosophy of education can naturally be considered a branch of both philosophy and education. Philosophy of education is commonly housed in colleges and departments of education, yet it is applied philosophy, drawing from the the traditional fields of philosophy (ontology, ethics, epistemology, etc.) and approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions regarding education policy, human development, education research methodology, and curriculum theory, to name a few.
Psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.[citation needed] Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities.[citation needed]
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology.[citation needed] Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management.[citation needed] Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences.[citation needed] In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).
Sociology
The sociology of education is the study of how social institutions and forces affect educational processes and outcomes, and vice versa. By many, education is understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners may be motivated by aspirations for progress and betterment. Education is perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities.[31] The purpose of education can be to develop every individual to their full potential.[citation needed] The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes differs according to the sociological paradigm used.
Educational Development
In some developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced are naturally greater.[citation needed] People in more remote or agrarian areas are sometimes unaware of the importance of education. However, many countries have an active Ministry of Education, and in many subjects, such as foreign language learning, the degree of education is actually much higher than in industrialized countries; for example, it is not at all uncommon for students in many developing countries to be reasonably fluent in multiple foreign languages, whereas this is much more of a rarity in the supposedly "more educated" countries where much of the population is in fact monolingual.
There is also economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education.[citation needed] Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school.[citation needed] This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school.[citation needed] Teachers are often paid less than other similar professions.[citation needed]
A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities, is evident in countries with a relatively high population density.[citation needed] In some countries, there are uniform, over structured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.
* Due to globalization, increased pressure on students in curricular activities
* Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)
India is now developing technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, India launched EDUSAT, an education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a $100 laptop. The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007. The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.
In Africa, NEPAD has launched an "e-school programme" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. Private groups, like The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the Perpetual Education Fund. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the support of American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.
Internationalisation
Education is becoming increasingly international. Not only are the materials becoming more influenced by the rich international environment, but exchanges among students at all levels are also playing an increasingly important role. In Europe, for example, the Socrates-Erasmus Programme stimulates exchanges across European universities. Also, the Soros Foundation provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Some scholars argue that, regardless of whether one system is considered better or worse than another, experiencing a different way of education can often be considered to be the most important, enriching element of an international learning experience.[3
References
1. ^ George F. Kneller, Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971). pp.20-21.
2. ^ UNESCO, Education For All Monitoring Report 2008, Net Enrollment Rate in primary education
3. ^ See Merriam et al. Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007). Sharan Merriam, Rosemary Caffarella and Lisa Baumgartner write that “we need only look more closely inside our own borders, to Native Americans, for example… to find major systems of thought and beliefs embedded in entirely different cultural values and epistemological systems that can be drawn upon to enlarge our understanding of adult learning” (p. 218). Merriam et al. then go on to explain that another purpose in becoming familiar with other knowledge systems is the benefit this knowledge will have in affecting our practice with learners having other than Western worldviews. Antone and Gamlin (2004) for example, argue that to be effective, literacy programs with Aboriginal people (a term they use to refer to First Nations, Inuit, and Metis persons and collectivities) must be more than ‘reading, numeracy and writing which is typically geared towards gaining access to mainstream employment’ (p. 26). Rather Aboriginal literacy is about sustaining a particular worldview and about the survival of a distinct and vital culture. Being literate is about resymbolizing and reinterpreting past experience, while at the same time honouring traditional values. Being literate is about "living" these values in contemporary times. Being literate is about "visioning" a future in which an Aboriginal "way of being" will continue to thrive. Meaningful Aboriginal literacy will develop and find expression in everything that is done. Consequently, Aboriginal literacy programs must reflect a broad approach that recognizes the unique ways that Aboriginal people represent their experience and knowledge. [p. 26; italics in original] Frequently, Merriam et al. also return to this need “to enlarge our understanding of adult learning” through the lens of cultural sensitivity by focusing on theories related to the intimate connection between learning and social context– often framed in terms of inclusiveness and respect for differing values, beliefs, experiences, perspectives and environments as strongly correlated with the traditional ways and methods inherent in both individual and collective notions of culture. For instance, in their discussion of experiential learning, the authors comment that “in acknowledging cognition and learning from experience as a cultural phenomenon, the perspectives of critical… and postmodern thinkers become crucial. Among the major results of thinking about cognition from a cultural frame are the critiques that have been fostered about traditional educational theory and practice… Foremost among these critiques is a challenge to the fundamental notion that learning is something that occurs within the individual. Rather, learning encompasses the interaction of learners and the social environments in which they function” (p. 180).
4. ^ See generally R. A. Malatest et al. Best Practices in Increasing Aboriginal Postsecondary Enrolment Rates (Canada: Council of Ministers of Education, Canada, 2002)[1]and Dr. Pamela Toulouse, Supporting Aboriginal Student Success: Self-Esteem and Identity, A Living Teachings Approach (Presentation delivered at the 2007 Ontario Education Research Symposium)[2]
5. ^ In the Canadian province of Manitoba for instance, collaborative efforts between the government and post-secondary institutions (both universities and colleges) has resulted in the implementation of 13 Access Programs (spanning several disciplines and program focus areas). These Access programs often place emphasis on indigenous methods and content in the delivery of post-secondary education and training, while also providing students with a variety of other culturally sensitive supports (such as elders and mentors) in order to enhance their success in higher education. Advocates of such programs will often highlight the fact that, between 2001/02 and 2005/06 (most recent available data) a total of 800 students successfully graduated from these programs with postsecondary credentials, while an average of 70.8 per cent of all students enrolled during these same years were Aboriginal. Statistics cited according to pp. 141-143 of the Manitoba Council on Post-Secondary Education Statistical Compendium For the Academic Years Ending in 2006[3] According to these advocates, the inclusion of indigenous models of education in those Access Programs that are intended for Aboriginal learners, is an important factor contributing to the completion of postsecondary education for the estimated 566 Aboriginal students who would not otherwise have been likely to achieve this same level of success.
6. ^ Examples of subjects...
7. ^ Dunn and Dunn
8. ^ Biographer of Renzulli
9. ^ Thomas Armstrong's website detailing Multiple Intelligences
10. ^ Keirsey web-site
11. ^ Type Delineator description
12. ^ Swassing, R. H., Barbe, W. B., & Milone, M. N. (1979). The Swassing-Barbe Modality Index: Zaner-Bloser Modality Kit. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
13. ^ Varied Learning Modes
14. ^ Barbe, W. B., & Swassing, R. H., with M. N. Milone. (1979). Teaching through modality strengths: Concepts and practices. Columbus, OH: Zaner-Bloser.
15. ^ Learning modality description from the Learning Curve website
16. ^ / How the world's best school systems come out topg
17. ^ Blurton, Craig. "New Directions of ICT-Use in Education" (PDF). http://www.unesco.org/education/educprog/lwf/dl/edict.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
18. ^ ICT in Education
19. ^ Potashnik, M. and Capper, J.. "Distance Education:Growth and Diversity" (PDF). http://www.worldbank.org/fandd/english/pdfs/0398/0110398.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
20. ^ Taghioff, Daniel. "Seeds of Consensus—The Potential Role for Information and Communication Technologies in Development.". http://web.archive.org/web/20031012140402/http://www.btinternet.com/~daniel.taghioff/index.html. Retrieved on 2003-10-12.
21. ^ Open University of the United Kingdom Official website
22. ^ Indira Gandhi National Open University Official website
23. ^ Hanushek, Economic Outcomes and School Quality
24. ^ UCLA Economics 183 Lecture from Professor Boustan
25. ^ Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development: An Empirical Investigation." American Economic Review 91,no.5 (December 2001):1369-1401.
26. ^ Eric A. Hanushek, and Ludger Woessmann, "The role of cognitive skills in economic development." Journal of Economic Literature 46,no.3 (September 2008):607-608.
27. ^ Jacob Mincer, "The distribution of labor incomes: a survey with special reference to the human capital approach." Journal of Economic Literature 8,no.1 (March 1970):1-26.
28. ^ See, for example, David Card, "Causal effect of education on earnings," in Handbook of labor economics, edited by Orley Ashenfelter and David Card. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1999:1801-1863; James J. Heckman, Lance J. Lochner, and Petra E. Todd., "Earnings functions, rates of return and treatment effects: The Mincer equation and beyond," in Handbook of the Economics of Education, edited by Eric A. Hanushek and Finis Welch. Amsterdam: North Holland, 2006:307-458.
29. ^ Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (Basic Books, 1976)
30. ^ Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 214-233.
31. ^ Schofield, K. (1999). "The Purposes of Education", Queensland State Education: 2010, [Online] URL: www.aspa.asn.au/Papers/eqfinalc.PDF [Accessed 2002, Oct 28]
32. ^ Dubois, H.F.W., Padovano, G., & Stew, G. (2006) Improving international nurse training: an American–Italian case study. International Nursing Review, 53(2): 110–116.
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